1	Kimmel, Chapter Two All about Biology Biological explanations of gender Ring “true” as they are based on “objective scientific facts” Correspond to our perceptions of reality Reassures that the social is “natural” Puts blame for inequality on nature instead of on society—and shows that there is no need to change
2	Before the 19^th Century Biological and gender differences were the province of God, the church, biblical scholars Men and women created for different purposes Men to lead, women to follow Men to act, women to help Any effort to change the inequities was seen as trying to go against the “laws of God”
3	19^th Century Darwin, Law of Natural Selection Evolutionary biologists saw women’s biology and function as making them “unfit” for the public arena Natural selection was seen as heretical to certain theologies Social work to challenge inequities was seen as violating the “laws of nature”
4	"Sociologists and biologists adopted the..." Sociologists and biologists adopted the law of natural selection, distorting it, and leading to “factual” and “scientific” support of some of the worst racism and sexism ever published or advocated If women tried to equal men in work or intelligence, they were thought to be “unsex”-ing themselves and opening the door to violent female problems Evidence: College-educated women of the time had less children and were admitted into mental institutions in greater numbers than college-educated men
5	Evidence Three areas of research support biological evidence today: Evolutionary theory, from sociobiology to “evolutionary psychology” Brain research Endocrinological research on sex hormones, before birth and at puberty (and to a lesser extent menopause)
6	Evolutionary Theories of Fertility Men are sexually aggressive because the perpetuation of the species depends on fertilizing as many women as possible: men are “naturally” promiscuous Women, who can only carry one (or a few) babies at a time must look for a mate to “protect” them and their young offspring: women are “naturally” monogamous
7	Evolutionary “History” Men as hunters; women as gatherers
8	Kimmel’s Evaluation The conclusions based on evolutionary arguments are “based on an interpretation of evidence that is selective and conforms to preconceived ideas”; they are examples of backwards reasoning Female chimpanzees seem to be more promiscuous than their males counterparts Gorillas are more male-dominant while baboons are more female-dominant
9	Brain Research Differences between hemispheres Difference in connective tissue Ways in which men and women use different parts of their brains for similar functions
10	Brain Research History Brain research ahs been used since the 19^th century to support racism, sexism, and other political power systems Sociologist Emile Durkheim: “[W]ith the advance of civilization the brain of the two sexes has increasingly developed differently. . . . [T]his progressive gap between the two may be due both to the considerable development of the male skull and to a cessation and even a regression in the growth of the female skull.”
11	Contemporary Brain Study Hemispheres Right is associated with visual and spatial abilities Left is associated with language and reading A 1965 study by Geschwind and Behan might indicate that testosterone secreted in the womb “attacks” the left hemisphere, slowing its development Men are better, then, at art, music, and math Men tend to have one side dominate, women are more lateralized Bleier reanalyzed data in 1984 and found no significant sex differences in more than 500 fetal brains
12	Degree of Lateralization Scientists are biased; they want to see a difference Labarthe studied toddlers boys and girls and concluded boys are better at building bridges and thus have increased visual and spatial abilities. Reanalyzing the data shows that when birth weight was considered, there were no differences. The larger the baby at birth the better their visual and spatial skills at age two.
13	Mathematical Aptitude Men outnumber women at the genius end of the mathematical spectrum, but that may not indicate a brain more suited for math Hyde studied data on almost 4 million people and found that in general studies, women outperformed men in mathematics but on advanced tests men outperformed women. Kimmel concludes this is proof of the greater range of differences among males and among females than between males and females
14	Corpus Collosum The tracing of the superimposed hemispheres (3) shows the asymmetry in position and size between the parietal opercula. The tracings of Einstein's hemispheres (6) highlights the confluence of PC and the posterior ascending branch of SF in each hemisphere, the absence of the parietal opercula, and the symmetry of the sulcal morphology between hemispheres. Comparison of the tracings shows the relatively anterior position of the SF bifurcation in Einstein, and the associated greater posterior parietal expanse, particularly in his left hemisphere compared with the control brain.
15	Corpus Collosum Size Recent research has not been able to confirm any difference in corpus collosum, although an early study of 14 female brains from cadavers indicated that women’s might be larger and more “bulbous.” Why, if no credible differences have been found, does our culture proliferate the differences? Kinsbourne says “the study of sex differences is not like the rest of psychology. Under pressure from the gathering momentum of feminism, and perhaps in backlash to it, many investigators seem determined to discover that men and women ‘really’ are different. It seems that if sex differenced do not exist, then they have to be invented.”
16	Gay Brain Much research on hormones in the brain has tried to prove or disprove that homosexuals have an “essence” that will emerge, regardless of culture and experience. Breedlove points out that even if one finds a structural difference in the brains that doesn’t mean that it was caused by genes.
17	Testosterone vs. Estrogen Testosterone is assumed to be the driving force in masculinization and the basis of human aggression, but some scientists believe testosterone has a “permissive” effect on aggression Aggression seems to increase testosterone production Men who are married and have children have lower levels of testosterone PMS research parallels testosterone studies
18	“Treatment” of Homosexuality When given testosterone men’s lust increases, but increased testosterone does not shift the object (men) of homosexual male’s lust Homosexual men appear to have more testosterone than straight men (in spite of their more feminine stereotype)
19	Essentialism Male domination is thought natural, so why change it But if it is natural why does it need to be coerced by laws, punishments, and systems of tradition? Some conservatives, the same people who argue for the “natural” differences between men and women, will argue that homosexuality is a “choice,” and that people can be reeducated to choose differently. All research suggests that gender, not sexual orientation, is the organizing principle of sexual behavior.